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<title>Samshvilde</title>

Samshvilde

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</style><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title fn org">Samshvilde</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader"><div class="nickname">სამშვილდე</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="infobox-caption">Ruins of the Samshvilde citadel</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1291884410">

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</style><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:250px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:250px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:250px"><div class="od notheme" style="top:78.314%;left:66.275%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Shown within Georgia</div></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data label"><a href="Tetritsqaro_Municipality" title="Tetritsqaro Municipality">Tetritsqaro Municipality</a>, <a href="Kvemo_Kartli" title="Kvemo Kartli">Kvemo Kartli</a>, <a href="Georgia_(country)" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Coordinates</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">

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</style><a class="external text" href="geo:41.507222222222225,44.50555555555555">41°30′26″N 44°30′20″E / 41.50722°N 44.50556°E / 41.50722; 44.50556</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Type</th><td class="infobox-data category">Settlement</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Length</th><td class="infobox-data">2.5 m (8 ft 2 in)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Width</th><td class="infobox-data">0.4 km (0.25 mi)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #eee;">History</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Periods</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Early_Bronze_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Bronze Age">Early Bronze Age</a> to <a href="Early_Modern" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Modern">Early Modern</a></td></tr></tbody></table>

Samshvilde (<a href="Georgian_language" title="Georgian language">Georgian</a>: სამშვილდე, [samʃʷilde]) is a ruined fortified city and archaeological site in <a href="Georgia_(country)" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a>, in the country's south, near the <a href="Samshvilde_(village)" title="Samshvilde (village)">homonymous modern-day village</a> in the <a href="Tetritsqaro_Municipality" title="Tetritsqaro Municipality">Tetritsqaro Municipality</a>, <a href="Kvemo_Kartli" title="Kvemo Kartli">Kvemo Kartli</a> <a href="Mkhare" title="Mkhare">region</a>. The ruins of the city, mostly medieval structures, stretch for a distance of 2.5 km in length and 400 metres (1,300 ft) in width in the <a href="Khrami" title="Khrami">Khrami</a> river valley.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGamkrelidzeMindorashviliBragvadzeKvatsadze2013440-1">[1]</a> Some of the most recognizable monuments are the <a href="Samshvilde_Sioni_church" title="Samshvilde Sioni church">Samshvilde Sioni church</a> and a citadel erected on a rocky river promontory.

Samshvilde features in the medieval Georgian annals as one of the oldest cities of ancient <a href="Kartli" title="Kartli">Kartli</a>, dating back to the 3rd century BC. In the Middle Ages, it was an important stronghold as well as a lively commercial and industrial city. Samshvilde changed hands several times. At the end of the 10th century, it became capital of the Armenian kings of <a href="Kingdom_of_Tashir-Dzoraget" title="Kingdom of Tashir-Dzoraget">Tashir-Dzoraget</a> and was incorporated in the <a href="Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Kingdom of Georgia</a> in 1064. From the mid-13th century on, as fortunes of the medieval Georgian monarchy faded, Samshvilde went into decline and was reduced to a peripheral military outpost. By the end of the 18th century, it was in ruins.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div>

The etymology of the name of Samshvilde is first recorded by the 10th-century Armenian chronicler <a href="Hovhannes_Draskhanakerttsi" title="Hovhannes Draskhanakerttsi">Hovhannes Draskhanakerttsi</a> as meaning in Georgian "three arrows",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaksoudian1987203-2">[2]</a> from sami ("three") and mshvildi ("bow"). In fact, the toponym is constructed through a Georgian geographic circumfix sa⟩ ⟨e<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERapp2003420-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> and means "[a place] of the bow".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVivian19911-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuskhelishvili2009131-6">[6]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prehistory">Prehistory</h3></div>

Samshvilde is centered in a naturally fortified location, a rocky terrain at the confluence of the <a href="Khrami" title="Khrami">Khrami</a> and Chivchavi rivers, 4 km south of the town of <a href="Tetritsqaro" title="Tetritsqaro">Tetritsqaro</a>. The 1968–1970 archaeological expedition uncovered two layers of the early <a href="Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> <a href="Kura%E2%80%93Araxes_culture" title="Kura–Araxes culture">Kura–Araxes culture</a> at Samshvilde, in the southern slopes of Mount Karnkali, dating from the middle of the 4th millennium BC and 3rd millennium BC, respectively. This horizon included a settlement site and burial ground as well as a circular cult building. Artifacts unearthed there were the Bronze-Age pottery and various obsidian tools.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeuferTchabashviliKrumnowHansen2024-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGamkrelidzeMindorashviliBragvadzeKvatsadze2013441–442-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Antiquity">Antiquity</h3></div>

According to the medieval <a href="Georgian_Chronicles" class="mw-redirect" title="Georgian Chronicles">Georgian Chronicles</a>, Samshvilde was formerly known as Orbi, a castle whose foundation was ascribed to <a href="Kartlos" title="Kartlos">Kartlos</a>, the mythic <a href="Ethnarch" title="Ethnarch">ethnarch</a> of the Georgians of <a href="Kartli" title="Kartli">Kartli</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson19969-10">[10]</a> and which was found heavily fortified, but besieged and conquered by <a href="Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> during his alleged campaign in the Georgian lands.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson199614-11">[11]</a> In the 3rd century BC, under the <a href="Kingdom_of_Iberia_(antiquity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Iberia (antiquity)">kings of Kartli</a>, known to the <a href="Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Greco-Roman world</a> as Iberia, Samshvilde became a center of one of the kingdom's subdivisions, run by <a href="Eristavi" title="Eristavi">eristavi</a> ("duke"), first appointed by <a href="Pharnavaz_I_of_Iberia" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharnavaz I of Iberia">Parnavaz</a>, the first in the traditional list of the kings of Kartli.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson199634-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEToumanoff1963185-13">[13]</a> King <a href="Archil_of_Iberia" title="Archil of Iberia">Archil</a> (c. 411–435) gave Samshvilde in appanage to his son <a href="Mihrdat_V_of_Iberia" class="mw-redirect" title="Mihrdat V of Iberia">Mihrdat</a> who then succeeded on the throne of Kartli. Mihrdat's Iranian wife <a href="Sagdukht" title="Sagdukht">Sagdukht</a>, a convert to Christianity, is credited by a Georgian chronicle to have built the church of Sioni at Samshvilde.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson1996156-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGamkrelidzeMindorashviliBragvadzeKvatsadze2013440-1">[1]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</h3></div>

The borders of the duchy of Samshvilde fluctuated in the course of history, as the southern portion of it was frequently contested between Kartli and the neighboring <a href="Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">kings of Armenia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEToumanoff1963499-15">[15]</a> The city itself remained one of the key settlements of Iberia. Along with <a href="Tbilisi" title="Tbilisi">Tbilisi</a> and <a href="Mtskheta" title="Mtskheta">Mtskheta</a>, Samshvilde is listed as one of the three main towns of that country in the 7th-century Armenian geography by <a href="Anania_Shirakatsi" title="Anania Shirakatsi">Anania Shirakatsi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewsen1992202,_248-16">[16]</a> The 8th-century <a href="Samshvilde_Sioni_inscription" title="Samshvilde Sioni inscription">Georgian inscription</a> at the Sioni church, in an <a href="Asomtavruli" class="mw-redirect" title="Asomtavruli">asomtavruli</a> script, makes mention of two persons of the house of pitiakhsh, an Iranian-styled local dynasts who appear to have been in possession of Samshvilde. By that time, the region around Samshvilde fell under influence of the newly established Muslim emirate, <a href="Emirate_of_Tbilisi" title="Emirate of Tbilisi">centered in Tbilisi</a>, the former royal capital of Kartli.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGamkrelidzeMindorashviliBragvadzeKvatsadze2013440-1">[1]</a> From this time on, Samsvhilde was contested among various Georgian, Armenian, and Muslim rulers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELordkipanidze198796-17">[17]</a>

Around 888, Samshvilde was occupied by the <a href="Bagratid_Armenia" title="Bagratid Armenia">Bagratid</a> king <a href="Smbat_I_of_Armenia" title="Smbat I of Armenia">Smbat I of Armenia</a>, who entrusted the town to the charge of the two brothers of the <a href="Gntuni" title="Gntuni">Gntuni</a> family, Vasak and Ashot. The brothers proved to be unruly and Smbat's successor, <a href="Ashot_II_of_Armenia" title="Ashot II of Armenia">Ashot II</a>, had to bring them back to allegiance by force of arms c. 915.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaksoudian1987203–204-18">[18]</a> Vasak Gntuni was still recalcitrant and, c. 921, defected to the Georgian prince <a href="Gurgen_II_of_Tao" title="Gurgen II of Tao">Gurgen II of Tao</a>, prompting King Ashot to put the fortress under siege. As a force sent by Gurgen was entering the citadel, fighting broke out between it and Vasak's men garrisoning the fortress, who eventually let Ashot's army in. In an ensuing confrontation, Gurgen's surviving soldiers were taken captive and mutilated, while Samshvilde again submitted to the Armenian king.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaksoudian1987213-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuskhelishvili2009131-6">[6]</a>

In the closing decade of the 10th century, Samshvilde passed to the Kuirikids, an Armenian Bagratid collateral line of the <a href="Kingdom_of_Tashir-Dzoraget" title="Kingdom of Tashir-Dzoraget">Kingdom of Tashir-Dzoraget</a>, who chose it as their capital. On account of this, <a href="David_I_Anhoghin" title="David I Anhoghin">David I</a>, king of Tashir and Dzoraget, was referred to as Samshvildari, that is, "of Samshvilde", by a medieval Georgian author.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutateladze1997162-20">[20]</a> In 1001, David revolted, unsuccessfully, from the hegemony of his uncle, King <a href="Gagik_I_of_Armenia" title="Gagik I of Armenia">Gagik I of Armenia</a>, who, in a three-month-long campaign, ravaged <a href="Tashir_(historical_region)" title="Tashir (historical region)">Tashir</a>, Samshvilde, and the Plain of the Georgians (Vrac'dast), as the historian <a href="Stepanos_Asoghik" title="Stepanos Asoghik">Stepanos Asoghik</a> referred to the surrounding district.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmin1864202–203-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutateladze1997163-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuskhelishvili2009133-23">[23]</a>

Samshvilde served as the Kuirikid capital until a member of that dynasty, <a href="Kiurike_II_of_Lori" title="Kiurike II of Lori">Kiurike II</a>, was made captive by King <a href="Bagrat_IV_of_Georgia" title="Bagrat IV of Georgia">Bagrat IV of Georgia</a> and had to ransom himself by surrendering Samshvilde to the Georgians in 1064.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson1996299–300-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERayfield201281-25">[25]</a> Bagrat's son, <a href="George_II_of_Georgia" title="George II of Georgia">George II</a>, conceded control of the city to his powerful vassal <a href="Ivane_I%2C_Duke_of_Kldekari" class="mw-redirect" title="Ivane I, Duke of Kldekari">Ivane I, Duke of Kldekari</a>, thereby buying his loyalty, in 1073.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson1996306-26">[26]</a> Within a year or so, Samshvilde was conquered by the <a href="Seljuq_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Seljuq Empire">Seljuqs</a> under <a href="Malik-Shah_I" title="Malik-Shah I">Malik-Shah I</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson1996307-27">[27]</a> and remained their outpost in Georgia until 1110, when Bishop <a href="George_of_Chqondidi" title="George of Chqondidi">George of Chqondidi</a> besieged and took the city on behalf of King <a href="David_IV_of_Georgia" class="mw-redirect" title="David IV of Georgia">David IV of Georgia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson1996323-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERayfield201282-29">[29]</a> This induced the Seljuqs to hastily evacuate most of surrounding districts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELordkipanidze198796-17">[17]</a> David then granted Samshvilde to his loyal commander, Ivane Orbeli, in 1123. The city remained in possession of the <a href="House_of_Orbeli" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Orbeli">Orbeli clan</a>, hereditary commanders-in-chief of the Kingdom of Georgia, until they lost it to the crown as a result of their failed revolt against <a href="George_III_of_Georgia" title="George III of Georgia">George III of Georgia</a>, in the course of which the king's loyal army stormed the fortress in 1178.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGamkrelidzeMindorashviliBragvadzeKvatsadze2013440-1">[1]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Decline">Decline</h4></div>

Samshvilde was attacked by the invading Mongols on their way to Tbilisi, the capital of Georgia, in 1236. In March 1440, it was sacked by <a href="Jahan_Shah" title="Jahan Shah">Jahan Shah</a>, leader of the <a href="Kara_Koyunlu" class="mw-redirect" title="Kara Koyunlu">Kara Koyunlu</a>, indignant at refusal of <a href="Alexander_I_of_Georgia" title="Alexander I of Georgia">Alexander I of Georgia</a> to submit to his suzerainty. According to the contemporary historian <a href="Thomas_of_Metsoph" title="Thomas of Metsoph">Thomas of Metsoph</a>, Jahan Shah captured the besieged city "through deceit" on the day of <a href="Pentecost" title="Pentecost">Pentecost</a> and massacred its population, building a minaret of 1,664 severed human heads at the gate of the city; sixty Christian priests, monks, and noblemen were put to death for their refusal to apostatize. Even some of those who agreed to renounce Christianity were not spared. Survivors had to seek refuge in the thick forests around Samshvilde.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBedrosian1987[httpwwwattalusorgarmeniantm6htm_T'ovma_Metsobets'i's_History_of_Tamerlane_and_His_Successors,_Ch._6]-30">[30]</a>

The city never fully recovered from this blow and lost its past importance, save for its function as a peripheral fortress.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERayfield2012163-31">[31]</a> After the final disintegration of the <a href="Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Kingdom of Georgia</a> in the 1490s, it became part of the <a href="Kingdom_of_Kartli" title="Kingdom of Kartli">Kingdom of Kartli</a>. In 1578, Samshvilde was occupied by the Ottoman army under <a href="Lala_Mustafa_Pasha" title="Lala Mustafa Pasha">Lala Mustafa Pasha</a> during <a href="Lala_Mustafa_Pasha's_Caucasian_campaign" title="Lala Mustafa Pasha's Caucasian campaign">its victorious campaign</a> in Georgia, but, in 1583, it was recovered by King <a href="Simon_I_of_Kartli" title="Simon I of Kartli">Simon I of Kartli</a>. In 1636, <a href="Rostom_of_Kartli" title="Rostom of Kartli">Rostom of Kartli</a> granted Samshvilde in possession to his treasurer, Shiosh Khmaladze, and, in 1693, <a href="Heraclius_I_of_Kartli" class="mw-redirect" title="Heraclius I of Kartli">Heraclius I of Kartli</a> bestowed it upon the <a href="Baratashvili" title="Baratashvili">Baratashvili</a> noble family.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGamkrelidzeMindorashviliBragvadzeKvatsadze2013441-32">[32]</a>

Samshvilde rose to relative importance in 1747, when the Muslim Georgian prince <a href="Abdullah_Beg_of_Kartli" title="Abdullah Beg of Kartli">Abdullah Beg</a> employed <a href="Lezgins" title="Lezgins">Lesgian</a> mercenaries and fortified the Samshvilde fortress in his quest to challenge the hold of Kartli exercised by his Christian relative, <a href="Teimuraz_II_of_Kartli" class="mw-redirect" title="Teimuraz II of Kartli">Teimuraz II</a>. Abdullah Beg's designs were dashed by Teimuraz's son, <a href="Heraclius_II_of_Georgia" title="Heraclius II of Georgia">Heraclius</a>, who stormed Samshvilde and made the pretender captive in 1749. The city was left in the hands of Abdullah Beg's younger brother, Husayn Beg, who, in 1751, surrendered to Heraclius II and resettled to Tbilisi.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGamkrelidzeMindorashviliBragvadzeKvatsadze2013441-32">[32]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Monuments">Monuments</h2></div>

The archaeological horizon and architectural monuments of Samshvilde are inscribed on the list of the National Heritage of Georgia as the City-Site of Samshvilde (სამშვილდის ნაქალაქარი). Archaeological study of the Samshvilde area began in 1948 and systematic efforts for better conservation of the site were launched in 1978.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGamkrelidzeMindorashviliBragvadzeKvatsadze2013441-32">[32]</a> In the 2000s, construction of major international pipelines in the region prompted new archaeological projects and discovery of new prehistoric features.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> Many of the late medieval and early modern structures were further studied by the Samshvilde Archaeological Expedition organized by the Tbilisi-based <a href="University_of_Georgia_(Tbilisi)" title="University of Georgia (Tbilisi)">University of Georgia</a> from 2012 to 2015.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a>

The city-site occupies a nearly triangular area on a promontory at the Khrami–Chivchavi confluence and is divided into three main parts. The citadel is on the east, on a steep edge of the promontory, and the city proper lies on the west, with the walled fortress in between them. The site includes ruins of several churches, a citadel, palaces, houses, a bridge over the Chivchavi river, water cisterns, bathes, a cemetery, and other accessory structures.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGamkrelidzeMindorashviliBragvadzeKvatsadze2013444-36">[36]</a>

A small hall-church of St. George stands in the city proper. A now-lost Georgian inscription of 1672, published by <a href="Ekvtime_Takaishvili" title="Ekvtime Takaishvili">E. Takaishvili</a>, identifies the lady called Zilikhan, a former caretaker of the wife of King <a href="Vakhtang_V_of_Kartli" class="mw-redirect" title="Vakhtang V of Kartli">Vakhtang V of Kartli</a>, as a renovator of the church.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGamkrelidzeMindorashviliBragvadzeKvatsadze2013444-36">[36]</a>

Inside the fortress walls, stands a small stone church, that of the <a href="Dormition_of_the_Mother_of_God" title="Dormition of the Mother of God">Dormition</a>, which contains a large, prehistoric black <a href="Menhir" title="Menhir">menhir</a>, sooty of candle flames, with a cross and an Armenian text mentioning the prince Smbat inscribed into it in the 11th century. The Khrami river is overlooked by another church, known as the Theogenida, probably built in the 12th or 13th century, near which a structure made of four big stones, a tetralith, is found.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGamkrelidzeMindorashviliBragvadzeKvatsadze2013444-36">[36]</a>

The citadel consists of massive walls, towers, and three larger churches. Among these is the domed <a href="Samshvilde_Sioni_church" title="Samshvilde Sioni church">Sioni church</a>, now in ruins, the most recognizable landmark of Samshvilde. The medieval tradition ascribes its construction to the 5th-century queen Sagdukht, but the extant edifice dates to c. 759–777 as suggested by a Georgian inscription from the better-preserved eastern façade, containing references to the contemporary Byzantine emperors <a href="Constantine_V" title="Constantine V">Constantine V</a> and <a href="Leo_IV_the_Khazar" title="Leo IV the Khazar">Leo IV the Khazar</a>. There is another, heavily damaged, almost illegible Georgian inscription in the southern façade and, next to it, a fragment in Armenian identifying the Armenian catholicos Gevorg III Loretsi (r. 1069–1072). The strict architectural forms of the Samshvilde church reveal close affinities with design of the 7th-century <a href="Tsromi_church" title="Tsromi church">Tsromi church</a> in <a href="Shida_Kartli" title="Shida Kartli">Shida Kartli</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGamkrelidzeMindorashviliBragvadzeKvatsadze2013445-37">[37]</a>

West to the Sioni is a three-nave basilica, probably an Armenian church, built of dark basalt stones in the 10th or 11th century. The third church is a hall-church design, with a protruding apse and a wall inscription in Georgian, mentioning King <a href="David_IV_of_Georgia" class="mw-redirect" title="David IV of Georgia">David IV of Georgia</a> (r. 1089–1125).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGamkrelidzeMindorashviliBragvadzeKvatsadze2013445-37">[37]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGamkrelidzeMindorashviliBragvadzeKvatsadze2013440-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGamkrelidzeMindorashviliBragvadzeKvatsadze2013440_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGamkrelidzeMindorashviliBragvadzeKvatsadze2013440_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGamkrelidzeMindorashviliBragvadzeKvatsadze2013440_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGamkrelidzeMindorashviliBragvadzeKvatsadze2013440_1-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFGamkrelidzeMindorashviliBragvadzeKvatsadze2013">Gamkrelidze et al. 2013</a>, p. 440.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaksoudian1987203-2"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaksoudian1987203_2-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMaksoudian1987">Maksoudian 1987</a>, p. 203: Yovhannēs Drasxanakertc'i's History of Armenia, LVII

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERapp2003420-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERapp2003420_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRapp2003">Rapp 2003</a>, p. 420.

</li>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFBondyrevDavitashviliSingh2015" class="citation book cs1">Bondyrev, Igor; Davitashvili, Zurab; Singh, Vijay P. (2015). The Geography of Georgia: Problems and Perspectives. Springer. p. 109. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3319054131</bdi>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVivian19911-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVivian19911_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVivian1991">Vivian 1991</a>, p. 1.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuskhelishvili2009131-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuskhelishvili2009131_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuskhelishvili2009131_6-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMuskhelishvili2009">Muskhelishvili 2009</a>, p. 131.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETeuferTchabashviliKrumnowHansen2024-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeuferTchabashviliKrumnowHansen2024_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTeuferTchabashviliKrumnowHansen2024">Teufer et al. 2024</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGamkrelidzeMindorashviliBragvadzeKvatsadze2013441–442-8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGamkrelidzeMindorashviliBragvadzeKvatsadze2013441–442_8-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGamkrelidzeMindorashviliBragvadzeKvatsadze2013">Gamkrelidze et al. 2013</a>, pp. 441–442.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFDemetradzeMirtskhulava2010" class="citation journal cs1">Demetradze, Irina; Mirtskhulava, Guram (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/17164437">"Cultural Continuity at Samshvilde"</a>. Kadmos. 2. Ilia State University: 129–164. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.32859%2Fkadmos%2F2%2F129-164">10.32859/kadmos/2/129-164</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:164581256">164581256</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson19969-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomson19969_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFThomson1996">Thomson 1996</a>, p. 9.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson199614-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomson199614_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFThomson1996">Thomson 1996</a>, p. 14.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson199634-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomson199634_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFThomson1996">Thomson 1996</a>, p. 34.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEToumanoff1963185-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEToumanoff1963185_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFToumanoff1963">Toumanoff 1963</a>, p. 185.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson1996156-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomson1996156_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFThomson1996">Thomson 1996</a>, p. 156.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEToumanoff1963499-15"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEToumanoff1963499_15-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFToumanoff1963">Toumanoff 1963</a>, p. 499.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewsen1992202,_248-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewsen1992202,_248_16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHewsen1992">Hewsen 1992</a>, pp. 202, 248.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELordkipanidze198796-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELordkipanidze198796_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELordkipanidze198796_17-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLordkipanidze1987">Lordkipanidze 1987</a>, p. 96.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaksoudian1987203–204-18"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaksoudian1987203–204_18-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMaksoudian1987">Maksoudian 1987</a>, pp. 203–204: Yovhannēs Drasxanakertc'i's History of Armenia, LVII

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaksoudian1987213-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaksoudian1987213_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMaksoudian1987">Maksoudian 1987</a>, p. 213: Yovhannēs Drasxanakertc'i's History of Armenia, LXII

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutateladze1997162-20"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutateladze1997162_20-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKutateladze1997">Kutateladze 1997</a>, p. 162.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmin1864202–203-21"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmin1864202–203_21-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEmin1864">Emin 1864</a>, pp. 202–203: Stepanos Taronetsi-Asoghik's Universal History, XLV

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKutateladze1997163-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKutateladze1997163_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKutateladze1997">Kutateladze 1997</a>, p. 163.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuskhelishvili2009133-23"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuskhelishvili2009133_23-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMuskhelishvili2009">Muskhelishvili 2009</a>, p. 133.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson1996299–300-24"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomson1996299–300_24-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFThomson1996">Thomson 1996</a>, pp. 299–300.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERayfield201281-25"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERayfield201281_25-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRayfield2012">Rayfield 2012</a>, p. 81.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson1996306-26"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomson1996306_26-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFThomson1996">Thomson 1996</a>, p. 306.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson1996307-27"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomson1996307_27-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFThomson1996">Thomson 1996</a>, p. 307.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson1996323-28"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomson1996323_28-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFThomson1996">Thomson 1996</a>, p. 323.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERayfield201282-29"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERayfield201282_29-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRayfield2012">Rayfield 2012</a>, p. 82.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBedrosian1987[httpwwwattalusorgarmeniantm6htm_T'ovma_Metsobets'i's_History_of_Tamerlane_and_His_Successors,_Ch._6]-30"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBedrosian1987[httpwwwattalusorgarmeniantm6htm_T'ovma_Metsobets'i's_History_of_Tamerlane_and_His_Successors,_Ch._6]_30-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBedrosian1987">Bedrosian 1987</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.attalus.org/armenian/tm6.htm">T'ovma Metsobets'i's History of Tamerlane and His Successors, Ch. 6</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERayfield2012163-31"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERayfield2012163_31-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRayfield2012">Rayfield 2012</a>, p. 163.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGamkrelidzeMindorashviliBragvadzeKvatsadze2013441-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGamkrelidzeMindorashviliBragvadzeKvatsadze2013441_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGamkrelidzeMindorashviliBragvadzeKvatsadze2013441_32-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGamkrelidzeMindorashviliBragvadzeKvatsadze2013441_32-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFGamkrelidzeMindorashviliBragvadzeKvatsadze2013">Gamkrelidze et al. 2013</a>, p. 441.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFDemetradzeMirtskhulava2010" class="citation journal cs1">Demetradze, Irina; Mirtskhulava, Guram (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/demetradze325/">"Pipeline archaeology in Georgia"</a>. Antiquity. 84 (325).</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMirtskhulavaKvirkveliaChikovaniGambashidze2007" class="citation web cs1">Mirtskhulava, Guram; Kvirkvelia, Guram; Chikovani, Guram; Gambashidze, Civi (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://agt.si.edu/_images/uncover_more/site_reports/_site_report_pdf/georgia/KP77__Report%20Eng..pdf">"Comprehensive Technical Report of Archaeological Investigations at Site IV-209 Samshvilde, KP 77+60, Tetritskaro District, Kvemo Kartli Region"</a> (PDF). Ancient Heritage in the BTC–SCP Pipelines Corridor. Smithsonian Institution.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://samshvilde.ge/en/index.php?mod=about">"Samshvilde Archaeological Expedition"</a>. University of Georgia. Retrieved 2 October 2016.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGamkrelidzeMindorashviliBragvadzeKvatsadze2013444-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGamkrelidzeMindorashviliBragvadzeKvatsadze2013444_36-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGamkrelidzeMindorashviliBragvadzeKvatsadze2013444_36-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGamkrelidzeMindorashviliBragvadzeKvatsadze2013444_36-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFGamkrelidzeMindorashviliBragvadzeKvatsadze2013">Gamkrelidze et al. 2013</a>, p. 444.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGamkrelidzeMindorashviliBragvadzeKvatsadze2013445-37">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGamkrelidzeMindorashviliBragvadzeKvatsadze2013445_37-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGamkrelidzeMindorashviliBragvadzeKvatsadze2013445_37-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGamkrelidzeMindorashviliBragvadzeKvatsadze2013">Gamkrelidze et al. 2013</a>, p. 445.

</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Samshvilde_fortress" class="extiw external" title="commons:Samshvilde fortress">Samshvilde fortress</a>.</div></div>

</div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFBedrosian1987" class="citation web cs1">Bedrosian, Robert (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.attalus.org/armenian/tm1.htm">"T'ovma Metsobets'i's History of Tamerlane and His Successors"</a>.</cite>

<ul><li><cite class="citation book cs1">Metsobets'i, T'ovma (2021). History of Tamerlane and His Successors. Translated by Bedrosian, Robert. Sophene Books. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-925937-46-6</bdi>.</cite></li></ul></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFEmin1864" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Emin, Nikita O., ed. (1864). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RyE_AAAAcAAJ&q=1001">Всеобщая история Степаноса Таронскаго Асохьика по прозванию</a> [Universal History by Stepanos of Taron alias Asoghik] (in Russian). Moscow: Lazarev Institute of Oriental Languages.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGamkrelidzeMindorashviliBragvadzeKvatsadze2013" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Gamkrelidze, Gela; Mindorashvili, Davit; Bragvadze, Zurab; Kvatsadze, Marine, eds. (2013). "სამშვილდე [Samshvilde]". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dspace.nplg.gov.ge/bitstream/1234/41521/1/KartlisCxovrebisTopoarqeologiuriLeksikoni.pdf">ქართლის ცხოვრების ტოპოარქეოლოგიური ლექსიკონი [Topoarchaeological dictionary of Kartlis tskhovreba (The history of Georgia)]</a> (PDF) (in Georgian) (1st ed.). Tbilisi: Georgian National Museum. pp. 440–446. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-9941-15-896-4</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHewsen1992" class="citation book cs1">Hewsen, Robert H. (1992). The Geography of Ananias of Širak: Ašxarhac'oyc', the Long and the Short Recensions. Wiesbaden: Reichert. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>3-88226-485-3</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKutateladze1997" class="citation journal cs1">Kutateladze, Ketevan (1997). "The Names and Titulation of the Kvirikian Kings of Tashir-Dzoraget Kingdom". Bulletin of the Georgian National Academy of Sciences — Moambe. 156 (1): 161–163.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLordkipanidze1987" class="citation book cs1">Lordkipanidze, Mariam (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.georgianweb.com/history/mariam/index.html">Georgia in the XI-XII Centuries</a>. Tbilisi: Ganatleba.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMaksoudian1987" class="citation book cs1">Maksoudian, Krikor H., ed. (1987). Yovhannēs Drasxanakertc'i's History of Armenia. Atlanta, Georgia: Scholars Press.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMuskhelishvili2009" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Muskhelishvili, David (2009). Некоторые вопросы истории Грузии в армянской историографии [Some problems of the history of Georgia in Armenian historiography] (in Russian). Tbilisi: Universal. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-9941-12-798-4</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRapp2003" class="citation book cs1">Rapp, S. H. Jr. (2003). Studies in Medieval Georgian Historiography: Early Texts and Eurasian Contexts. <a href="Peeters_Publishers" title="Peeters Publishers">Peeters Publishers</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9042913185</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRayfield2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Donald_Rayfield" title="Donald Rayfield">Rayfield, Donald</a> (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PxQpmg_JIpwC">Edge of Empires, a History of Georgia</a>. London: Reaktion Books. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-78023-070-2</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFTeuferTchabashviliKrumnowHansen2024" class="citation journal cs1">Teufer, Mike; Tchabashvili, Levan; Krumnow, Jan; Hansen, Svend (2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://publications.dainst.org/journals/efb/article/view/4631">"Samshvilde, Georgien. Eine Siedlung der Kura-Arax-Kultur in Georgien. Die Grabungen von 2021 bis 2023"</a> [Samshvilde, Georgia. A Settlement of the Kura-Arax Culture in Georgia. The Excavations from 2021 to 2023]. e-Forschungsberichte des DAI (1): 39–53. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.34780%2Frm1g2f17">10.34780/rm1g2f17</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFThomson1996" class="citation book cs1">Thomson, Robert W. (1996). Rewriting Caucasian history: the medieval Armenian adaptation of the Georgian chronicles; the original Georgian texts and the Armenian adaptation. Oxford: Clarendon Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0198263732</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFToumanoff1963" class="citation book cs1">Toumanoff, Cyril (1963). Studies in Christian Caucasian history. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFVivian1991" class="citation book cs1">Vivian, Katharine, ed. (1991). The Georgian chronicle: the Period of Giorgi Lasha. Amsterdam: Adolf M. Hakkert. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>90-256-0965-1</bdi>.</cite></li></ul></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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